Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Ten disasters inflicted by God on Egypt in the story of the Exodus}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2016}}
[[File:Scenes from Exodus f 16.jpg|thumb|Scenes from the [[Book of Exodus]]: The death of the firstborns (including the [[Pharaoh]]'s son), and the Israelites leaving Egypt (''[[Haggadah#Illuminated manuscripts|Haggadah shel Pesaḥ]]'', 1325–1374 CE, Barcelona via [[British Library]])]]
The '''Plagues of Egypt''' ({{lang-he|מכות מצרים}}), in the account of the [[Book of Exodus]], are ten [[disaster]]s inflicted on [[biblical Egypt]] by the [[Yahweh|God of Israel (Yahweh)]] in order to convince the [[Pharaohs in the Bible|Pharaoh]] to emancipate the enslaved [[Israelites]], each of them confronting Pharaoh and one of his [[Ancient Egyptian deities|Egyptian gods]];<ref name="Greifenhagen"/> they serve as "signs and marvels" given by God to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: "The Egyptians shall know that I am the {{LORD}}".<ref name="Tigay">{{cite book
|last = Tigay
|first = Jeffrey H.
|chapter = Exodus
|editor1-last = Berlin
|editor1-first = Adele
|editor2-last = Brettler
|editor2-first = Marc Zvi
|title = The Jewish Study Bible
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|year = 2004
|url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515
|url-access = registration
}}</ref>{{rp|117}} The Ten Plagues are recited during the [[Passover Seder]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=08. The Meaning of the Ten Plagues – Peninei Halakha |url=https://ph.yhb.org.il/en/04-15-08/ |access-date=2024-04-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>
The consensus of modern scholars is that the [[Pentateuch]] does not give an accurate account of the origins of the Israelites, who appear instead to have formed as an entity in the central highlands of [[Canaan]] in the late second millennium BCE (around the time of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]]) from the indigenous Canaanite culture.<ref> Grabbe, Lester (2017). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?. Bloomsbury. {{ISBN|978-0-567-67043-4}}</ref><ref name="Moore">{{cite book
|last1 = Moore
|first1 = Megan Bishop
|last2 = Kelle
|first2 = Brad E.
|title = Biblical History and Israel's Past
|year = 2011
|publisher = Eerdmans
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA81
|isbn = 9780802862600
}}</ref>{{rp|81}}<ref>{{cite book
| last = Meyers
| first = Carol
| title = Exodus
| year = 2005
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA5
| isbn = 9780521002912
}}</ref>{{rp|6–7}}
== Plagues ==
[[File:Tissot Water Is Changed into Blood.jpg|thumb|The First Plague: ''Water Is Changed into Blood'', [[James Tissot]]]]
=== 1. Turning water to blood: Ex. 7:14–24 ===
{{blockquote|This is what the [[Yahweh|{{LORD}}]] says: By this you will know that I am the {{LORD}}: With the staff that is in my hands I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will be changed into blood. The fish in the Nile will die, and the river will stink and the Egyptians will not be able to drink its water.|Exodus 7:17–18|source=}}
The Bible says that Aaron turned the Nile to blood by striking it with his staff. Pharaoh's magicians used their secret arts to also strike the Nile, creating a second layer of blood. In addition to the Nile, all water that was held in reserve, such as jars, was also transformed into blood. The Egyptians were forced to dig alongside the bank of the Nile, which still had pure water. One week passed before the plague dissipated.<ref name=":0" />
=== 2. Frogs: Ex. 7:25–8:11/15 ===
{{anchor|Frogs2ndPlague}}
{{See also|Va'eira}}
{{blockquote|This is what the great {{LORD}} says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole country with frogs. The Nile will teem with frogs. They will come up into your palace and your bedroom and onto your bed, into the houses of your officials and on your people, and into your ovens and kneading troughs. The frogs will go up on you and your people and all your officials.|Exodus 8:1–4}}
The Bible says that God ordered frogs to emerge from the Nile, which then jumped around virtually everywhere in Egypt. The magicians attempted to produce frogs from their secret arts, conjuring up a second wave of frogs. Even the private quarters of Pharaoh was infested with frogs. Three days passed before all the frogs died. The Egyptians had to do much work to rid themselves of the corpses, and the land stank of frog for long afterwards. When the decision came for Pharaoh about the slaves, the Lord hardened his heart and Pharaoh decided that the slaves would not be freed.
=== 3. Lice or gnats: Ex. 8:12–15/8:16–19 ===
{{blockquote|"And the {{LORD}} said [...] Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt." […] When Aaron stretched out his hand with the rod and struck the dust of the ground, lice came upon men and animals. All the dust throughout the land of Egypt became lice.|Exodus 8:16–17}}
=== 4. Wild animals or flies: Ex. 8:16–28/8:20–32 ===
The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Bible tells us that the plagues only came against the Egyptians and did not affect the Israelites. Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to grant the Israelites their freedom. However, after the plague was gone, Pharaoh hardened his heart and he refused to keep his promise.
Various sources use either "wild animals" or "flies".<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Ten Plagues|url=https://www.chabad.org/holidays/passover/pesach_cdo/aid/1653/jewish/The-Ten-Plagues.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402064833/https://www.chabad.org/holidays/passover/pesach_cdo/aid/1653/jewish/The-Ten-Plagues.htm|archive-date=April 2, 2020|access-date=April 8, 2020|website=Chabad.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.biblestudytools.com/lxx/exodus/8.html|title=Exodus 8 – LXX Bible|website=Bible Study Tools|access-date=2019-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422151522/https://www.biblestudytools.com/lxx/exodus/8.html|archive-date=April 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Philo: On the Life of Moses, I|url=http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book24.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418232308/http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book24.html|archive-date=April 18, 2019|access-date=2019-04-22|website=Early Jewish Writings}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/19/2/2|title=Beasts or Bugs?|date=2015-08-24|website=The BAS Library|language=en|access-date=2019-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422142811/https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/19/2/2|archive-date=April 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== 5. Pestilence of livestock: Ex. 9:1–7 ===
{{blockquote|This is what the {{LORD}}, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go and continue to hold them back, the hand of the {{LORD}} will bring a terrible plague on your livestock in the field—on your horses and donkeys and camels and on your cattle and sheep and goats.|Exodus 9:1–3}}
=== 6. Boils: Ex. 9:8–12 ===
[[File:Egyptian plague of boils in the Toggenburg Bible.jpg|thumb|The Sixth Plague: Miniature out of the [[Toggenburg Bible]], created {{Circa|1411}}.]]
{{blockquote|Then the {{LORD}} said to Moses and Aaron, "Take handfuls of soot from a furnace and have Moses toss it into the air in the presence of Pharaoh. It will become fine dust over the whole land of Egypt, and festering boils will break out on men and animals throughout the land."|Exodus 9:8–9}}
=== 7. Thunderstorm of hail and fire: Ex. 9:13–35 ===
{{blockquote|This is what the {{LORD}}, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me, or this time I will send the full force of my plagues against you and against your officials and your people, so you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. For by now I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with a plague that would have wiped you off the earth. But I have raised you up for this very purpose, that I might show you my power and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth. You still set yourself against my people and will not let them go. Therefore, at this time tomorrow I will send the worst hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt, from the day it was founded till now. Give an order now to bring your livestock and everything you have in the field to a place of shelter, because the hail will fall on every man and animal that has not been brought in and is still out in the field, and they will die. […] The {{LORD}} sent thunder and hail, and lightning flashed down to the ground. So the {{LORD}} rained hail on the land of Egypt; hail fell and lightning flashed back and forth. It was the worst storm in all the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.|Exodus 9:13–24}}
=== {{anchor|Locusts}}8. Locusts: Ex. 10:1–20 ===
{{blockquote|This is what the {{LORD}}, the God of the Hebrews, says: 'How long will you refuse to humble yourself before me? Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will bring locusts into your country tomorrow. They will cover the face of the ground so that it cannot be seen. They will devour what little you have left after the hail, including every tree that is growing in your fields. They will fill your houses and those of all your officials and all the Egyptians—something neither your fathers nor your forefathers have ever seen from the day they settled in this land till now.|Exodus 10:3–6}}
=== 9. Three days of darkness: Ex. 10:21–29 ===
[[File:Spanish 15th Century, Massacre of the Firstborn and Egyptian Darkness, c. 1490, NGA 3930.jpg|thumb|Spanish 15th century, ''Massacre of the Firstborn and Egyptian Darkness'', c. 1490, hand-colored woodcut, [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington, [[Lessing J. Rosenwald|Rosenwald]] Collection, 1943.3.716]]
{{blockquote|Then the {{LORD}} said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt—darkness that can be felt." So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days.|Exodus 10:21–23}}
=== {{anchor|plague10}} 10. Death of the firstborn son: Ex. 11:1–12:36 === <!-- This section is linked from [[Passover]] -->
{{blockquote|This is what the {{LORD}} says: "About midnight I will go throughout Egypt. Every firstborn son in Egypt will die, from the firstborn son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the firstborn of the slave girl, who is at her hand mill, and all the firstborn of the cattle as well. There will be loud wailing throughout Egypt—worse than there has ever been or ever will be again."|Exodus 11:4–6}}
Before this final plague, God commands Moses to tell the Israelites to mark a [[domestic sheep|lamb]]'s blood above their doors in order that the Angel of Death will pass over them (i.e., that they will not be touched by the death of the firstborn). Pharaoh orders the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they want, and asks Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The passage goes on to state that the [[passover]] sacrifice recalls the time when the {{LORD}} "passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt".<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|12:27|NKJV}}</ref>
== Composition and theology ==
[[File:National Library of Israel, Rothschild Haggadah 2861723 486098.jpg|thumb|alt=a page from the Rothschild Haggadah depicting the plagues, from the collections of the [[National Library of Israel]]|Page from the Rothschild Haggadah depicting the plagues, from the collections of the [[National Library of Israel]]]]
Scholars are in broad agreement that the publication of the Torah took place in the mid-Persian period (the 5th century BCE).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Römer |first=Thomas |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/80331961|title=The so-called Deuteronomistic history : a sociological, historical, and literary introduction|date=2007|publisher=T & T Clark|isbn=978-0-567-03212-6|location=London|oclc=80331961}}</ref> The [[Book of Deuteronomy]], composed in stages between the 7th and 6th centuries, mentions the "diseases of Egypt" (Deuteronomy 7:15 and 28:60) but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians, and never specifies the plagues.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Rogerson
| first = John W.
| chapter = Deuteronomy
| editor1-last = Dunn
| editor1-first = James D. G.
| editor2-last = Rogerson
| editor2-first = John William
| title = Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible
| publisher = Eerdmans
| year = 2003b
| isbn = 9780802837110
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153
|page=154}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Van Seters
| first = John
| title = The Pentateuch: A Social Science Commentary
| year = 2015
| publisher = Bloomsbury
| isbn = 9780567658807
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=42-_CQAAQBAJ
|page=124}}</ref>
The traditional number of ten plagues is not actually mentioned in Exodus, and other sources differ; [[Psalm 78|Psalms 78]] and [[Psalm 105|105]] seem to list only seven or eight plagues and order them differently.<ref name="Greifenhagen">{{cite book|last=Greifenhagen|first=F.V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC|title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2000|isbn=9789053565032|editor1-last=Freedman|editor1-first=David Noel|page=1062|chapter=Plagues of Egypt|editor2-last=Myers|editor2-first=Allen C.}}</ref> It appears that originally there were only seven, to which were added the third, sixth, and ninth, bringing the count to ten.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Johnstone
| first = William D.
| chapter = Exodus
| editor1-last = Dunn
| editor1-first = James D. G.
| editor2-last = Rogerson
| editor2-first = John William
| title = Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible
| year = 2003
| publisher = Eerdmans
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC
| isbn = 9780802837110
}}</ref>{{rp|83–84}}
In this final version, the first nine plagues form three triads, each of which God introduces by informing Moses of the main lesson it will teach.<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|117}} In the first triad, the Egyptians begin to experience the power of God;<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|118}} in the second, God demonstrates that he is directing events;<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|119}} and in the third, the incomparability of Yahweh is displayed.<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|117}} Overall, the plagues are "signs and marvels" given by the God of Israel to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: "The Egyptians shall know that I am the {{LORD}}".<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|117}}
== Historicity ==
{{Main|Sources and parallels of the Exodus}}
Scholars broadly agree that [[the Exodus]] is not a historical account, that the Israelites originated in [[Canaan]] and from the [[Canaanites]] and that, while a small group of proto-Israelites may have originated from Egypt, it did not happen in the massive way the Bible describes.{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt.."}}<ref name="Moore"/>{{rp|81}}<ref>{{cite book
| last = Meyers
| first = Carol
| title = Exodus
| year = 2005
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA5
| isbn = 9780521002912
}}</ref>{{rp|6–7}} The [[Ipuwer Papyrus]], written no earlier than the late [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt]] (c. 1991–1803 BCE),{{sfn|Willems|2010|p=83}} has been put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the biblical account, most notably because of its statement that "the river is blood" and its frequent references to servants running away; however, these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as Asiatics arriving in Egypt rather than leaving and the fact that the "river is blood" phrase probably refers to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or is simply a poetic image of turmoil.<ref>{{cite book|last=Enmarch|first=Roland|url=http://www.rutherfordpress.co.uk/Enmarch%20-%20The%20Reception%20of%20Ipuwer.pdf|title=Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen|publisher=Rutherford|year=2011|editor1-last=Collier|editor1-first=M.|pages=173–175|chapter=The Reception of a Middle Egyptian Poem: The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All|editor2-last=Snape|editor2-first=S.|access-date=October 1, 2017|archive-date=March 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181622/http://www.rutherfordpress.co.uk/Enmarch%20-%20The%20Reception%20of%20Ipuwer.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Attempts to find natural explanations for the plagues (e.g., a volcanic eruption to explain the "darkness" plague) have been dismissed by biblical scholars on the grounds that their pattern, timing, rapid succession, and above all, control by Moses mark them as [[supernatural]].<ref name="Moore"/>{{rp|90}}<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|117–118}}
== Artistic representation ==
===Visual art===
[[File:Lamentations over the Death of the First-Born of Egypt by Charles Sprague Pearce.JPG|thumb|right|''Lamentations over the Death of the First-Born of Egypt'' by [[Charles Sprague Pearce]] (1877)]]
In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]] and [[J. M. W. Turner|Joseph Turner]] producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in [[Orientalism]], wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill-suited for decoration in palaces and churches.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}
===Music===
Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is [[George Frideric Handel|Handel's]] oratorio ''[[Israel in Egypt]]'', which, like his perennial favorite, "[[Handel's Messiah|Messiah]]", takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Leon
| first = Donna
| title = Handel's Bestiary: In Search of Animals in Handel's Operas
| year = 2011
| publisher = Grove Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xiiWE-fwVp8C&pg=PT85
| isbn = 978-0802195616
}}</ref>
===Documentaries===
* ''[[The Exodus Decoded]]'' (2006)
===Films===
* ''[[The Ten Commandments (1923 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (1923)
* ''[[The Moon of Israel]]'' (1924)
* ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (1956)
* ''[[The Abominable Dr. Phibes]]'' (1971)
* ''[[The Seventh Sign]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Moses (film)|Moses]]'' (1995)
* ''[[The Prince of Egypt]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Magnolia (film)|Magnolia]]'' (1999)
* ''[[The Mummy (1999 film)|The Mummy]]'' (1999)
* ''[[The Reaping]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Exodus: Gods and Kings]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Seder-Masochism]]'' (2018)
==Image gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:Aaron points his rod at the river and it begins to flow with Wellcome V0034268.jpg|The Second Plague: Frogs came up and covered the Sand of Egypt
File:William de Brailes - The Third Plague of Egypt - Gnats (Exodus 8 -17) - Walters W1065R - Full Page.jpg|The Third Plague:
File:Tissot The Plague of Flies.jpg|The Fourth Plague: ''The Plague of Flies'', [[James Jacques Joseph Tissot]], [[Jewish Museum (of New York)|Jewish Museum, New York]]
File:033.The Fifth Plague. Livestock Disease.jpg|The Fifth Plague: Pestilence of livestock, by [[Gustave Doré]]
File:Martin, John - The Seventh Plague - 1823.jpg|The Seventh Plague: [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]] (1823)
File:Holman The Plague of Locusts.jpg|The Eighth Plague: "The Plague of Locusts", illustration from the 1890 [[Holman bible|Holman Bible]]
File:034.The Ninth Plague. Darkness.jpg|The Ninth Plague: ''Darkness'' by [[Gustave Doré]]
</gallery>
== See also ==
* [[Aaron's rod]]
* [[Jochebed]]
* [[Miriam]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Collins |first=John J. |title=The Bible After Babel: Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age |year=2005 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=9780802828927 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yqClWOhqso0C&q=%22collective+memory%22&pg=PA45}}
* {{cite book |last1=Faust |first1=Avraham |chapter=The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus |title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience |editor1=Thomas E. Levy |editor2=Thomas Schneider |editor3=William H. C. Propp |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/11906343 |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-04768-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Redmount |first=Carol A. |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |chapter=Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt |editor-last=Coogan |editor-first=Michael D. |year=2001 |orig-year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199881482 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA59}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rendsburg |first1=Gary A. |chapter=Moses the Magician |title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience |editor1=Thomas E. Levy |editor2=Thomas Schneider |editor3=William H. C. Propp |chapter-url=https://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/docman/faculty-seminars/678-moses-the-magician/file |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-04768-3}}
*Isaac Luria. ''Las Diez Plagas de Egipto: Cábala y Códigos en la Biblia'' Independently published 2021 ISBN 979-8486990120
{{refend}}
== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
*[https://www.kabbalaonline.org/kabbalah/article_cdo/aid/379573/jewish/Kabbala-and-the-10-Plagues.htm ''Kabbalah and the 10 Plagues'' (www.kabbalaonline.org)]
{{Passover footer}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Plagues Of Egypt}}
[[Category:Book of Exodus]]
[[Category:Egypt in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Moses]]
[[Category:Passover]]
[[Category:Jewish miracles]]
[[Category:Animals in religion]]
[[Category:Insects in religion]]
[[Category:Disasters in Egypt]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Ten disasters inflicted by God on Egypt in the story of the Exodus}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2016}}
[[File:Scenes from Exodus f 16.jpg|thumb|Scenes from the [[Book of Exodus]]: The death of the firstborns (including the [[Pharaoh]]'s son), and the Israelites leaving Egypt to fuck you all and I hate you bitch(''[[Haggadah#Illuminated manuscripts|Haggadah shel Pesaḥ]]'', 1325–1374 CE, Barcelona via [[British Library]])]]
The '''Plagues of Egypt''' ({{lang-he|מכות מצרים}}), in the account of the [[Book of Exodus]], are ten [[disaster]]s inflicted on [[biblical Egypt]] by the [[Yahweh|God of Israel (Yahweh)]] in order to convince the [[Pharaohs in the Bible|Pharaoh]] to emancipate the enslaved [[Israelites]], each of them confronting Pharaoh and one of his [[Ancient Egyptian deities|Egyptian gods]];<ref name="Greifenhagen"/> they serve as "signs and marvels" given by God to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: "The Egyptians shall know that I am the {{LORD}}".<ref name="Tigay">{{cite book
|last = Tigay
|first = Jeffrey H.
|chapter = Exodus
|editor1-last = Berlin
|editor1-first = Adele
|editor2-last = Brettler
|editor2-first = Marc Zvi
|title = The Jewish Study Bible
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|year = 2004
|url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515
|url-access = registration
}}</ref>{{rp|117}} The Ten Plagues are recited during the [[Passover Seder]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=08. The Meaning of the Ten Plagues – Peninei Halakha |url=https://ph.yhb.org.il/en/04-15-08/ |access-date=2024-04-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>
The consensus of modern scholars is that the [[Pentateuch]] does not give an accurate account of the origins of the Israelites, who appear instead to have formed as an entity in the central highlands of [[Canaan]] in the late second millennium BCE (around the time of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]]) from the indigenous Canaanite culture.<ref> Grabbe, Lester (2017). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?. Bloomsbury. {{ISBN|978-0-567-67043-4}}</ref><ref name="Moore">{{cite book
|last1 = Moore
|first1 = Megan Bishop
|last2 = Kelle
|first2 = Brad E.
|title = Biblical History and Israel's Past
|year = 2011
|publisher = Eerdmans
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA81
|isbn = 9780802862600
}}</ref>{{rp|81}}<ref>{{cite book
| last = Meyers
| first = Carol
| title = Exodus
| year = 2005
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA5
| isbn = 9780521002912
}}</ref>{{rp|6–7}}
== Plagues ==
[[File:Tissot Water Is Changed into Blood.jpg|thumb|The First Plague: ''Water Is Changed into Blood'', [[James Tissot]]]]
=== 1. Turning water to blood: Ex. 7:14–24 ===
{{blockquote|This is what the [[Yahweh|{{LORD}}]] says: By this you will know that I am the {{LORD}}: With the staff that is in my hands I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will be changed into blood. The fish in the Nile will die, and the river will stink and the Egyptians will not be able to drink its water.|Exodus 7:17–18|source=}}
The Bible says that Aaron turned the Nile to blood by striking it with his staff. Pharaoh's magicians used their secret arts to also strike the Nile, creating a second layer of blood. In addition to the Nile, all water that was held in reserve, such as jars, was also transformed into blood. The Egyptians were forced to dig alongside the bank of the Nile, which still had pure water. One week passed before the plague dissipated.<ref name=":0" />
=== 2. Frogs: Ex. 7:25–8:11/15 ===
{{anchor|Frogs2ndPlague}}
{{See also|Va'eira}}
{{blockquote|This is what the great {{LORD}} says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole country with frogs. The Nile will teem with frogs. They will come up into your palace and your bedroom and onto your bed, into the houses of your officials and on your people, and into your ovens and kneading troughs. The frogs will go up on you and your people and all your officials.|Exodus 8:1–4}}
The Bible says that God ordered frogs to emerge from the Nile, which then jumped around virtually everywhere in Egypt. The magicians attempted to produce frogs from their secret arts, conjuring up a second wave of frogs. Even the private quarters of Pharaoh was infested with frogs. Three days passed before all the frogs died. The Egyptians had to do much work to rid themselves of the corpses, and the land stank of frog for long afterwards. When the decision came for Pharaoh about the slaves, the Lord hardened his heart and Pharaoh decided that the slaves would not be freed.
=== 3. Lice or gnats: Ex. 8:12–15/8:16–19 ===
{{blockquote|"And the {{LORD}} said [...] Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt." […] When Aaron stretched out his hand with the rod and struck the dust of the ground, lice came upon men and animals. All the dust throughout the land of Egypt became lice.|Exodus 8:16–17}}
=== 4. Wild animals or flies: Ex. 8:16–28/8:20–32 ===
The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Bible tells us that the plagues only came against the Egyptians and did not affect the Israelites. Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to grant the Israelites their freedom. However, after the plague was gone, Pharaoh hardened his heart and he refused to keep his promise.
Various sources use either "wild animals" or "flies".<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Ten Plagues|url=https://www.chabad.org/holidays/passover/pesach_cdo/aid/1653/jewish/The-Ten-Plagues.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402064833/https://www.chabad.org/holidays/passover/pesach_cdo/aid/1653/jewish/The-Ten-Plagues.htm|archive-date=April 2, 2020|access-date=April 8, 2020|website=Chabad.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.biblestudytools.com/lxx/exodus/8.html|title=Exodus 8 – LXX Bible|website=Bible Study Tools|access-date=2019-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422151522/https://www.biblestudytools.com/lxx/exodus/8.html|archive-date=April 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Philo: On the Life of Moses, I|url=http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book24.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418232308/http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book24.html|archive-date=April 18, 2019|access-date=2019-04-22|website=Early Jewish Writings}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/19/2/2|title=Beasts or Bugs?|date=2015-08-24|website=The BAS Library|language=en|access-date=2019-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422142811/https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/19/2/2|archive-date=April 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== 5. Pestilence of livestock: Ex. 9:1–7 ===
{{blockquote|This is what the {{LORD}}, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go and continue to hold them back, the hand of the {{LORD}} will bring a terrible plague on your livestock in the field—on your horses and donkeys and camels and on your cattle and sheep and goats.|Exodus 9:1–3}}
=== 6. Boils: Ex. 9:8–12 ===
[[File:Egyptian plague of boils in the Toggenburg Bible.jpg|thumb|The Sixth Plague: Miniature out of the [[Toggenburg Bible]], created {{Circa|1411}}.]]
{{blockquote|Then the {{LORD}} said to Moses and Aaron, "Take handfuls of soot from a furnace and have Moses toss it into the air in the presence of Pharaoh. It will become fine dust over the whole land of Egypt, and festering boils will break out on men and animals throughout the land."|Exodus 9:8–9}}
=== 7. Thunderstorm of hail and fire: Ex. 9:13–35 ===
{{blockquote|This is what the {{LORD}}, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me, or this time I will send the full force of my plagues against you and against your officials and your people, so you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. For by now I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with a plague that would have wiped you off the earth. But I have raised you up for this very purpose, that I might show you my power and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth. You still set yourself against my people and will not let them go. Therefore, at this time tomorrow I will send the worst hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt, from the day it was founded till now. Give an order now to bring your livestock and everything you have in the field to a place of shelter, because the hail will fall on every man and animal that has not been brought in and is still out in the field, and they will die. […] The {{LORD}} sent thunder and hail, and lightning flashed down to the ground. So the {{LORD}} rained hail on the land of Egypt; hail fell and lightning flashed back and forth. It was the worst storm in all the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.|Exodus 9:13–24}}
=== {{anchor|Locusts}}8. Locusts: Ex. 10:1–20 ===
{{blockquote|This is what the {{LORD}}, the God of the Hebrews, says: 'How long will you refuse to humble yourself before me? Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will bring locusts into your country tomorrow. They will cover the face of the ground so that it cannot be seen. They will devour what little you have left after the hail, including every tree that is growing in your fields. They will fill your houses and those of all your officials and all the Egyptians—something neither your fathers nor your forefathers have ever seen from the day they settled in this land till now.|Exodus 10:3–6}}
=== 9. Three days of darkness: Ex. 10:21–29 ===
[[File:Spanish 15th Century, Massacre of the Firstborn and Egyptian Darkness, c. 1490, NGA 3930.jpg|thumb|Spanish 15th century, ''Massacre of the Firstborn and Egyptian Darkness'', c. 1490, hand-colored woodcut, [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington, [[Lessing J. Rosenwald|Rosenwald]] Collection, 1943.3.716]]
{{blockquote|Then the {{LORD}} said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt—darkness that can be felt." So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days.|Exodus 10:21–23}}
=== {{anchor|plague10}} 10. Death of the firstborn son: Ex. 11:1–12:36 === <!-- This section is linked from [[Passover]] -->
{{blockquote|This is what the {{LORD}} says: "About midnight I will go throughout Egypt. Every firstborn son in Egypt will die, from the firstborn son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the firstborn of the slave girl, who is at her hand mill, and all the firstborn of the cattle as well. There will be loud wailing throughout Egypt—worse than there has ever been or ever will be again."|Exodus 11:4–6}}
Before this final plague, God commands Moses to tell the Israelites to mark a [[domestic sheep|lamb]]'s blood above their doors in order that the Angel of Death will pass over them (i.e., that they will not be touched by the death of the firstborn). Pharaoh orders the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they want, and asks Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The passage goes on to state that the [[passover]] sacrifice recalls the time when the {{LORD}} "passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt".<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|12:27|NKJV}}</ref>
== Composition and theology ==
[[File:National Library of Israel, Rothschild Haggadah 2861723 486098.jpg|thumb|alt=a page from the Rothschild Haggadah depicting the plagues, from the collections of the [[National Library of Israel]]|Page from the Rothschild Haggadah depicting the plagues, from the collections of the [[National Library of Israel]]]]
Scholars are in broad agreement that the publication of the Torah took place in the mid-Persian period (the 5th century BCE).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Römer |first=Thomas |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/80331961|title=The so-called Deuteronomistic history : a sociological, historical, and literary introduction|date=2007|publisher=T & T Clark|isbn=978-0-567-03212-6|location=London|oclc=80331961}}</ref> The [[Book of Deuteronomy]], composed in stages between the 7th and 6th centuries, mentions the "diseases of Egypt" (Deuteronomy 7:15 and 28:60) but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians, and never specifies the plagues.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Rogerson
| first = John W.
| chapter = Deuteronomy
| editor1-last = Dunn
| editor1-first = James D. G.
| editor2-last = Rogerson
| editor2-first = John William
| title = Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible
| publisher = Eerdmans
| year = 2003b
| isbn = 9780802837110
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153
|page=154}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Van Seters
| first = John
| title = The Pentateuch: A Social Science Commentary
| year = 2015
| publisher = Bloomsbury
| isbn = 9780567658807
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=42-_CQAAQBAJ
|page=124}}</ref>
The traditional number of ten plagues is not actually mentioned in Exodus, and other sources differ; [[Psalm 78|Psalms 78]] and [[Psalm 105|105]] seem to list only seven or eight plagues and order them differently.<ref name="Greifenhagen">{{cite book|last=Greifenhagen|first=F.V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC|title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2000|isbn=9789053565032|editor1-last=Freedman|editor1-first=David Noel|page=1062|chapter=Plagues of Egypt|editor2-last=Myers|editor2-first=Allen C.}}</ref> It appears that originally there were only seven, to which were added the third, sixth, and ninth, bringing the count to ten.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Johnstone
| first = William D.
| chapter = Exodus
| editor1-last = Dunn
| editor1-first = James D. G.
| editor2-last = Rogerson
| editor2-first = John William
| title = Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible
| year = 2003
| publisher = Eerdmans
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC
| isbn = 9780802837110
}}</ref>{{rp|83–84}}
In this final version, the first nine plagues form three triads, each of which God introduces by informing Moses of the main lesson it will teach.<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|117}} In the first triad, the Egyptians begin to experience the power of God;<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|118}} in the second, God demonstrates that he is directing events;<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|119}} and in the third, the incomparability of Yahweh is displayed.<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|117}} Overall, the plagues are "signs and marvels" given by the God of Israel to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: "The Egyptians shall know that I am the {{LORD}}".<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|117}}
== Historicity ==
{{Main|Sources and parallels of the Exodus}}
Scholars broadly agree that [[the Exodus]] is not a historical account, that the Israelites originated in [[Canaan]] and from the [[Canaanites]] and that, while a small group of proto-Israelites may have originated from Egypt, it did not happen in the massive way the Bible describes.{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt.."}}<ref name="Moore"/>{{rp|81}}<ref>{{cite book
| last = Meyers
| first = Carol
| title = Exodus
| year = 2005
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA5
| isbn = 9780521002912
}}</ref>{{rp|6–7}} The [[Ipuwer Papyrus]], written no earlier than the late [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt]] (c. 1991–1803 BCE),{{sfn|Willems|2010|p=83}} has been put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the biblical account, most notably because of its statement that "the river is blood" and its frequent references to servants running away; however, these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as Asiatics arriving in Egypt rather than leaving and the fact that the "river is blood" phrase probably refers to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or is simply a poetic image of turmoil.<ref>{{cite book|last=Enmarch|first=Roland|url=http://www.rutherfordpress.co.uk/Enmarch%20-%20The%20Reception%20of%20Ipuwer.pdf|title=Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen|publisher=Rutherford|year=2011|editor1-last=Collier|editor1-first=M.|pages=173–175|chapter=The Reception of a Middle Egyptian Poem: The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All|editor2-last=Snape|editor2-first=S.|access-date=October 1, 2017|archive-date=March 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181622/http://www.rutherfordpress.co.uk/Enmarch%20-%20The%20Reception%20of%20Ipuwer.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Attempts to find natural explanations for the plagues (e.g., a volcanic eruption to explain the "darkness" plague) have been dismissed by biblical scholars on the grounds that their pattern, timing, rapid succession, and above all, control by Moses mark them as [[supernatural]].<ref name="Moore"/>{{rp|90}}<ref name="Tigay"/>{{rp|117–118}}
== Artistic representation ==
===Visual art===
[[File:Lamentations over the Death of the First-Born of Egypt by Charles Sprague Pearce.JPG|thumb|right|''Lamentations over the Death of the First-Born of Egypt'' by [[Charles Sprague Pearce]] (1877)]]
In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]] and [[J. M. W. Turner|Joseph Turner]] producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in [[Orientalism]], wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill-suited for decoration in palaces and churches.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}
===Music===
Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is [[George Frideric Handel|Handel's]] oratorio ''[[Israel in Egypt]]'', which, like his perennial favorite, "[[Handel's Messiah|Messiah]]", takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Leon
| first = Donna
| title = Handel's Bestiary: In Search of Animals in Handel's Operas
| year = 2011
| publisher = Grove Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xiiWE-fwVp8C&pg=PT85
| isbn = 978-0802195616
}}</ref>
===Documentaries===
* ''[[The Exodus Decoded]]'' (2006)
===Films===
* ''[[The Ten Commandments (1923 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (1923)
* ''[[The Moon of Israel]]'' (1924)
* ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (1956)
* ''[[The Abominable Dr. Phibes]]'' (1971)
* ''[[The Seventh Sign]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Moses (film)|Moses]]'' (1995)
* ''[[The Prince of Egypt]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Magnolia (film)|Magnolia]]'' (1999)
* ''[[The Mummy (1999 film)|The Mummy]]'' (1999)
* ''[[The Reaping]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Exodus: Gods and Kings]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Seder-Masochism]]'' (2018)
==Image gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:Aaron points his rod at the river and it begins to flow with Wellcome V0034268.jpg|The Second Plague: Frogs came up and covered the Sand of Egypt
File:William de Brailes - The Third Plague of Egypt - Gnats (Exodus 8 -17) - Walters W1065R - Full Page.jpg|The Third Plague:
File:Tissot The Plague of Flies.jpg|The Fourth Plague: ''The Plague of Flies'', [[James Jacques Joseph Tissot]], [[Jewish Museum (of New York)|Jewish Museum, New York]]
File:033.The Fifth Plague. Livestock Disease.jpg|The Fifth Plague: Pestilence of livestock, by [[Gustave Doré]]
File:Martin, John - The Seventh Plague - 1823.jpg|The Seventh Plague: [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]] (1823)
File:Holman The Plague of Locusts.jpg|The Eighth Plague: "The Plague of Locusts", illustration from the 1890 [[Holman bible|Holman Bible]]
File:034.The Ninth Plague. Darkness.jpg|The Ninth Plague: ''Darkness'' by [[Gustave Doré]]
</gallery>
== See also ==
* [[Aaron's rod]]
* [[Jochebed]]
* [[Miriam]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Collins |first=John J. |title=The Bible After Babel: Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age |year=2005 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=9780802828927 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yqClWOhqso0C&q=%22collective+memory%22&pg=PA45}}
* {{cite book |last1=Faust |first1=Avraham |chapter=The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus |title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience |editor1=Thomas E. Levy |editor2=Thomas Schneider |editor3=William H. C. Propp |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/11906343 |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-04768-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Redmount |first=Carol A. |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |chapter=Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt |editor-last=Coogan |editor-first=Michael D. |year=2001 |orig-year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199881482 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA59}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rendsburg |first1=Gary A. |chapter=Moses the Magician |title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience |editor1=Thomas E. Levy |editor2=Thomas Schneider |editor3=William H. C. Propp |chapter-url=https://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/docman/faculty-seminars/678-moses-the-magician/file |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-04768-3}}
*Isaac Luria. ''Las Diez Plagas de Egipto: Cábala y Códigos en la Biblia'' Independently published 2021 ISBN 979-8486990120
{{refend}}
== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
*[https://www.kabbalaonline.org/kabbalah/article_cdo/aid/379573/jewish/Kabbala-and-the-10-Plagues.htm ''Kabbalah and the 10 Plagues'' (www.kabbalaonline.org)]
{{Passover footer}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Plagues Of Egypt}}
[[Category:Book of Exodus]]
[[Category:Egypt in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Moses]]
[[Category:Passover]]
[[Category:Jewish miracles]]
[[Category:Animals in religion]]
[[Category:Insects in religion]]
[[Category:Disasters in Egypt]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ten disasters inflicted by God on Egypt in the story of the Exodus</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scenes_from_Exodus_f_16.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Scenes_from_Exodus_f_16.jpg/220px-Scenes_from_Exodus_f_16.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Scenes_from_Exodus_f_16.jpg/330px-Scenes_from_Exodus_f_16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Scenes_from_Exodus_f_16.jpg/440px-Scenes_from_Exodus_f_16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1182" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Scenes from the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a>: The death of the firstborns (including the <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a>'s son), and the Israelites leaving Egypt to fuck you all and I hate you bitch(<i><a href="/wiki/Haggadah#Illuminated_manuscripts" title="Haggadah">Haggadah shel Pesaḥ</a></i>, 1325–1374 CE, Barcelona via <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a>)</figcaption></figure>
<p>The <b>Plagues of Egypt</b> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">מכות מצרים</span>), in the account of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a>, are ten <a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">disasters</a> inflicted on <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Egypt" title="Biblical Egypt">biblical Egypt</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">God of Israel (Yahweh)</a> in order to convince the <a href="/wiki/Pharaohs_in_the_Bible" title="Pharaohs in the Bible">Pharaoh</a> to emancipate the enslaved <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>, each of them confronting Pharaoh and one of his <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_deities" title="Ancient Egyptian deities">Egyptian gods</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Greifenhagen_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greifenhagen-1">[1]</a></sup> they serve as "signs and marvels" given by God to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: "The Egyptians shall know that I am the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-Tigay_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tigay-2">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 117">: 117 </span></sup> The Ten Plagues are recited during the <a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder" title="Passover Seder">Passover Seder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>The consensus of modern scholars is that the <a href="/wiki/Pentateuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a> does not give an accurate account of the origins of the Israelites, who appear instead to have formed as an entity in the central highlands of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> in the late second millennium BCE (around the time of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a>) from the indigenous Canaanite culture.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moore_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-5">[5]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 81">: 81 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6–7">: 6–7 </span></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Plagues"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Plagues</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#1._Turning_water_to_blood:_Ex._7:14–24"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">1. Turning water to blood: Ex. 7:14–24</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#2._Frogs:_Ex._7:25–8:11/15"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">2. Frogs: Ex. 7:25–8:11/15</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#3._Lice_or_gnats:_Ex._8:12–15/8:16–19"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">3. Lice or gnats: Ex. 8:12–15/8:16–19</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#4._Wild_animals_or_flies:_Ex._8:16–28/8:20–32"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">4. Wild animals or flies: Ex. 8:16–28/8:20–32</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#5._Pestilence_of_livestock:_Ex._9:1–7"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">5. Pestilence of livestock: Ex. 9:1–7</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#6._Boils:_Ex._9:8–12"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">6. Boils: Ex. 9:8–12</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#7._Thunderstorm_of_hail_and_fire:_Ex._9:13–35"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">7. Thunderstorm of hail and fire: Ex. 9:13–35</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#8._Locusts:_Ex._10:1–20"><span class="tocnumber">1.8</span> <span class="toctext">8. Locusts: Ex. 10:1–20</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#9._Three_days_of_darkness:_Ex._10:21–29"><span class="tocnumber">1.9</span> <span class="toctext">9. Three days of darkness: Ex. 10:21–29</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#10._Death_of_the_firstborn_son:_Ex._11:1–12:36"><span class="tocnumber">1.10</span> <span class="toctext">10. Death of the firstborn son: Ex. 11:1–12:36</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Composition_and_theology"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Composition and theology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Historicity"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Historicity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Artistic_representation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Artistic representation</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Visual_art"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Visual art</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Music"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Music</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Documentaries"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Documentaries</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Films"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Films</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Image_gallery"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Image gallery</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Plagues">Plagues</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tissot_Water_Is_Changed_into_Blood.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Tissot_Water_Is_Changed_into_Blood.jpg/220px-Tissot_Water_Is_Changed_into_Blood.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Tissot_Water_Is_Changed_into_Blood.jpg/330px-Tissot_Water_Is_Changed_into_Blood.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Tissot_Water_Is_Changed_into_Blood.jpg 2x" data-file-width="419" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>The First Plague: <i>Water Is Changed into Blood</i>, <a href="/wiki/James_Tissot" title="James Tissot">James Tissot</a></figcaption></figure>
<h3><span id="1._Turning_water_to_blood:_Ex._7:14.E2.80.9324"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="1._Turning_water_to_blood:_Ex._7:14–24">1. Turning water to blood: Ex. 7:14–24</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This is what the <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span></a> says: By this you will know that I am the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span>: With the staff that is in my hands I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will be changed into blood. The fish in the Nile will die, and the river will stink and the Egyptians will not be able to drink its water.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Exodus 7:17–18</cite></div></blockquote>
<p>The Bible says that Aaron turned the Nile to blood by striking it with his staff. Pharaoh's magicians used their secret arts to also strike the Nile, creating a second layer of blood. In addition to the Nile, all water that was held in reserve, such as jars, was also transformed into blood. The Egyptians were forced to dig alongside the bank of the Nile, which still had pure water. One week passed before the plague dissipated.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3">[3]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="2._Frogs:_Ex._7:25.E2.80.938:11.2F15"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="2._Frogs:_Ex._7:25–8:11/15">2. Frogs: Ex. 7:25–8:11/15</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p><span class="anchor" id="Frogs2ndPlague"></span>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Va%27eira" title="Va'eira">Va'eira</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This is what the great L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span> says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole country with frogs. The Nile will teem with frogs. They will come up into your palace and your bedroom and onto your bed, into the houses of your officials and on your people, and into your ovens and kneading troughs. The frogs will go up on you and your people and all your officials.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Exodus 8:1–4</cite></div></blockquote>
<p>The Bible says that God ordered frogs to emerge from the Nile, which then jumped around virtually everywhere in Egypt. The magicians attempted to produce frogs from their secret arts, conjuring up a second wave of frogs. Even the private quarters of Pharaoh was infested with frogs. Three days passed before all the frogs died. The Egyptians had to do much work to rid themselves of the corpses, and the land stank of frog for long afterwards. When the decision came for Pharaoh about the slaves, the Lord hardened his heart and Pharaoh decided that the slaves would not be freed.
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<h3><span id="3._Lice_or_gnats:_Ex._8:12.E2.80.9315.2F8:16.E2.80.9319"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="3._Lice_or_gnats:_Ex._8:12–15/8:16–19">3. Lice or gnats: Ex. 8:12–15/8:16–19</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"And the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span> said [...] Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt." […] When Aaron stretched out his hand with the rod and struck the dust of the ground, lice came upon men and animals. All the dust throughout the land of Egypt became lice.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Exodus 8:16–17</cite></div></blockquote>
<h3><span id="4._Wild_animals_or_flies:_Ex._8:16.E2.80.9328.2F8:20.E2.80.9332"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="4._Wild_animals_or_flies:_Ex._8:16–28/8:20–32">4. Wild animals or flies: Ex. 8:16–28/8:20–32</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Bible tells us that the plagues only came against the Egyptians and did not affect the Israelites. Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to grant the Israelites their freedom. However, after the plague was gone, Pharaoh hardened his heart and he refused to keep his promise.
</p><p>Various sources use either "wild animals" or "flies".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup>
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<h3><span id="5._Pestilence_of_livestock:_Ex._9:1.E2.80.937"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="5._Pestilence_of_livestock:_Ex._9:1–7">5. Pestilence of livestock: Ex. 9:1–7</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This is what the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span>, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go and continue to hold them back, the hand of the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span> will bring a terrible plague on your livestock in the field—on your horses and donkeys and camels and on your cattle and sheep and goats.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Exodus 9:1–3</cite></div></blockquote>
<h3><span id="6._Boils:_Ex._9:8.E2.80.9312"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="6._Boils:_Ex._9:8–12">6. Boils: Ex. 9:8–12</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_plague_of_boils_in_the_Toggenburg_Bible.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Egyptian_plague_of_boils_in_the_Toggenburg_Bible.jpg/220px-Egyptian_plague_of_boils_in_the_Toggenburg_Bible.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Egyptian_plague_of_boils_in_the_Toggenburg_Bible.jpg/330px-Egyptian_plague_of_boils_in_the_Toggenburg_Bible.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Egyptian_plague_of_boils_in_the_Toggenburg_Bible.jpg/440px-Egyptian_plague_of_boils_in_the_Toggenburg_Bible.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3248" data-file-height="2436" /></a><figcaption>The Sixth Plague: Miniature out of the <a href="/wiki/Toggenburg_Bible" title="Toggenburg Bible">Toggenburg Bible</a>, created <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1411</span>.</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Then the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span> said to Moses and Aaron, "Take handfuls of soot from a furnace and have Moses toss it into the air in the presence of Pharaoh. It will become fine dust over the whole land of Egypt, and festering boils will break out on men and animals throughout the land."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Exodus 9:8–9</cite></div></blockquote>
<h3><span id="7._Thunderstorm_of_hail_and_fire:_Ex._9:13.E2.80.9335"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="7._Thunderstorm_of_hail_and_fire:_Ex._9:13–35">7. Thunderstorm of hail and fire: Ex. 9:13–35</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This is what the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span>, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me, or this time I will send the full force of my plagues against you and against your officials and your people, so you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. For by now I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with a plague that would have wiped you off the earth. But I have raised you up for this very purpose, that I might show you my power and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth. You still set yourself against my people and will not let them go. Therefore, at this time tomorrow I will send the worst hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt, from the day it was founded till now. Give an order now to bring your livestock and everything you have in the field to a place of shelter, because the hail will fall on every man and animal that has not been brought in and is still out in the field, and they will die. […] The L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span> sent thunder and hail, and lightning flashed down to the ground. So the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span> rained hail on the land of Egypt; hail fell and lightning flashed back and forth. It was the worst storm in all the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Exodus 9:13–24</cite></div></blockquote>
<h3><span id="8._Locusts:_Ex._10:1.E2.80.9320"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="8._Locusts:_Ex._10:1–20"><span class="anchor" id="Locusts"></span>8. Locusts: Ex. 10:1–20</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This is what the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span>, the God of the Hebrews, says: 'How long will you refuse to humble yourself before me? Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will bring locusts into your country tomorrow. They will cover the face of the ground so that it cannot be seen. They will devour what little you have left after the hail, including every tree that is growing in your fields. They will fill your houses and those of all your officials and all the Egyptians—something neither your fathers nor your forefathers have ever seen from the day they settled in this land till now.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Exodus 10:3–6</cite></div></blockquote>
<h3><span id="9._Three_days_of_darkness:_Ex._10:21.E2.80.9329"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="9._Three_days_of_darkness:_Ex._10:21–29">9. Three days of darkness: Ex. 10:21–29</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_15th_Century,_Massacre_of_the_Firstborn_and_Egyptian_Darkness,_c._1490,_NGA_3930.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Spanish_15th_Century%2C_Massacre_of_the_Firstborn_and_Egyptian_Darkness%2C_c._1490%2C_NGA_3930.jpg/220px-Spanish_15th_Century%2C_Massacre_of_the_Firstborn_and_Egyptian_Darkness%2C_c._1490%2C_NGA_3930.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Spanish_15th_Century%2C_Massacre_of_the_Firstborn_and_Egyptian_Darkness%2C_c._1490%2C_NGA_3930.jpg/330px-Spanish_15th_Century%2C_Massacre_of_the_Firstborn_and_Egyptian_Darkness%2C_c._1490%2C_NGA_3930.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Spanish_15th_Century%2C_Massacre_of_the_Firstborn_and_Egyptian_Darkness%2C_c._1490%2C_NGA_3930.jpg/440px-Spanish_15th_Century%2C_Massacre_of_the_Firstborn_and_Egyptian_Darkness%2C_c._1490%2C_NGA_3930.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2849" /></a><figcaption>Spanish 15th century, <i>Massacre of the Firstborn and Egyptian Darkness</i>, c. 1490, hand-colored woodcut, <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a>, Washington, <a href="/wiki/Lessing_J._Rosenwald" title="Lessing J. Rosenwald">Rosenwald</a> Collection, 1943.3.716</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Then the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span> said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt—darkness that can be felt." So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Exodus 10:21–23</cite></div></blockquote>
<h3><span id="10._Death_of_the_firstborn_son:_Ex._11:1.E2.80.9312:36"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="10._Death_of_the_firstborn_son:_Ex._11:1–12:36"><span class="anchor" id="plague10"></span> 10. Death of the firstborn son: Ex. 11:1–12:36</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This is what the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span> says: "About midnight I will go throughout Egypt. Every firstborn son in Egypt will die, from the firstborn son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the firstborn of the slave girl, who is at her hand mill, and all the firstborn of the cattle as well. There will be loud wailing throughout Egypt—worse than there has ever been or ever will be again."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Exodus 11:4–6</cite></div></blockquote>
<p>Before this final plague, God commands Moses to tell the Israelites to mark a <a href="/wiki/Domestic_sheep" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic sheep">lamb</a>'s blood above their doors in order that the Angel of Death will pass over them (i.e., that they will not be touched by the death of the firstborn). Pharaoh orders the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they want, and asks Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The passage goes on to state that the <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">passover</a> sacrifice recalls the time when the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span> "passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Composition_and_theology">Composition and theology</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Library_of_Israel,_Rothschild_Haggadah_2861723_486098.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a page from the Rothschild Haggadah depicting the plagues, from the collections of the National Library of Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/National_Library_of_Israel%2C_Rothschild_Haggadah_2861723_486098.jpg/220px-National_Library_of_Israel%2C_Rothschild_Haggadah_2861723_486098.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/National_Library_of_Israel%2C_Rothschild_Haggadah_2861723_486098.jpg/330px-National_Library_of_Israel%2C_Rothschild_Haggadah_2861723_486098.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/National_Library_of_Israel%2C_Rothschild_Haggadah_2861723_486098.jpg/440px-National_Library_of_Israel%2C_Rothschild_Haggadah_2861723_486098.jpg 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="1019" /></a><figcaption>Page from the Rothschild Haggadah depicting the plagues, from the collections of the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Scholars are in broad agreement that the publication of the Torah took place in the mid-Persian period (the 5th century BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy" title="Book of Deuteronomy">Book of Deuteronomy</a>, composed in stages between the 7th and 6th centuries, mentions the "diseases of Egypt" (Deuteronomy 7:15 and 28:60) but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians, and never specifies the plagues.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>The traditional number of ten plagues is not actually mentioned in Exodus, and other sources differ; <a href="/wiki/Psalm_78" title="Psalm 78">Psalms 78</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psalm_105" title="Psalm 105">105</a> seem to list only seven or eight plagues and order them differently.<sup id="cite_ref-Greifenhagen_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greifenhagen-1">[1]</a></sup> It appears that originally there were only seven, to which were added the third, sixth, and ninth, bringing the count to ten.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 83–84">: 83–84 </span></sup>
</p><p>In this final version, the first nine plagues form three triads, each of which God introduces by informing Moses of the main lesson it will teach.<sup id="cite_ref-Tigay_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tigay-2">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 117">: 117 </span></sup> In the first triad, the Egyptians begin to experience the power of God;<sup id="cite_ref-Tigay_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tigay-2">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 118">: 118 </span></sup> in the second, God demonstrates that he is directing events;<sup id="cite_ref-Tigay_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tigay-2">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 119">: 119 </span></sup> and in the third, the incomparability of Yahweh is displayed.<sup id="cite_ref-Tigay_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tigay-2">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 117">: 117 </span></sup> Overall, the plagues are "signs and marvels" given by the God of Israel to answer Pharaoh's taunt that he does not know Yahweh: "The Egyptians shall know that I am the L<span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant-caps: all-small-caps;">ORD</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-Tigay_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tigay-2">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 117">: 117 </span></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Historicity">Historicity</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sources_and_parallels_of_the_Exodus" title="Sources and parallels of the Exodus">Sources and parallels of the Exodus</a></div>
<p>Scholars broadly agree that <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">the Exodus</a> is not a historical account, that the Israelites originated in <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> and from the <a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a> and that, while a small group of proto-Israelites may have originated from Egypt, it did not happen in the massive way the Bible describes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015p.476:_"While_there_is_a_consensus_among_scholars_that_the_Exodus_did_not_take_place_in_the_manner_described_in_the_Bible,_surprisingly_most_scholars_agree_that_the_narrative_has_a_historical_core,_and_that_some_of_the_highland_settlers_came,_one_way_or_another,_from_Egypt.."_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015p.476:_"While_there_is_a_consensus_among_scholars_that_the_Exodus_did_not_take_place_in_the_manner_described_in_the_Bible,_surprisingly_most_scholars_agree_that_the_narrative_has_a_historical_core,_and_that_some_of_the_highland_settlers_came,_one_way_or_another,_from_Egypt.."-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moore_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-5">[5]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 81">: 81 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6–7">: 6–7 </span></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ipuwer_Papyrus" title="Ipuwer Papyrus">Ipuwer Papyrus</a>, written no earlier than the late <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt</a> (c. 1991–1803 BCE),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillems201083_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillems201083-18">[18]</a></sup> has been put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the biblical account, most notably because of its statement that "the river is blood" and its frequent references to servants running away; however, these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as Asiatics arriving in Egypt rather than leaving and the fact that the "river is blood" phrase probably refers to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or is simply a poetic image of turmoil.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> Attempts to find natural explanations for the plagues (e.g., a volcanic eruption to explain the "darkness" plague) have been dismissed by biblical scholars on the grounds that their pattern, timing, rapid succession, and above all, control by Moses mark them as <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-5">[5]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 90">: 90 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tigay_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tigay-2">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 117–118">: 117–118 </span></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Artistic_representation">Artistic representation</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Visual_art">Visual art</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG/220px-Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG/330px-Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG/440px-Lamentations_over_the_Death_of_the_First-Born_of_Egypt_by_Charles_Sprague_Pearce.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3305" data-file-height="2459" /></a><figcaption><i>Lamentations over the Death of the First-Born of Egypt</i> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sprague_Pearce" title="Charles Sprague Pearce">Charles Sprague Pearce</a> (1877)</figcaption></figure>
<p>In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with <a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">John Martin</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Joseph Turner</a> producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a>, wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill-suited for decoration in palaces and churches.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Music">Music</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is <a href="/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">Handel's</a> oratorio <i><a href="/wiki/Israel_in_Egypt" title="Israel in Egypt">Israel in Egypt</a></i>, which, like his perennial favorite, "<a href="/wiki/Handel%27s_Messiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Handel's Messiah">Messiah</a>", takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Documentaries">Documentaries</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Exodus_Decoded" title="The Exodus Decoded">The Exodus Decoded</a></i> (2006)</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Films">Films</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments_(1923_film)" title="The Ten Commandments (1923 film)">The Ten Commandments</a></i> (1923)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Moon_of_Israel" title="The Moon of Israel">The Moon of Israel</a></i> (1924)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments_(1956_film)" title="The Ten Commandments (1956 film)">The Ten Commandments</a></i> (1956)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Abominable_Dr._Phibes" title="The Abominable Dr. Phibes">The Abominable Dr. Phibes</a></i> (1971)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Seventh_Sign" title="The Seventh Sign">The Seventh Sign</a></i> (1988)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Moses_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses (film)">Moses</a></i> (1995)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince_of_Egypt" title="The Prince of Egypt">The Prince of Egypt</a></i> (1998)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Magnolia_(film)" title="Magnolia (film)">Magnolia</a></i> (1999)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mummy_(1999_film)" title="The Mummy (1999 film)">The Mummy</a></i> (1999)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Reaping" title="The Reaping">The Reaping</a></i> (2007)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Exodus:_Gods_and_Kings" title="Exodus: Gods and Kings">Exodus: Gods and Kings</a></i> (2014)</li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Seder-Masochism" title="Seder-Masochism">Seder-Masochism</a></i> (2018)</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Image_gallery">Image gallery</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 124.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aaron_points_his_rod_at_the_river_and_it_begins_to_flow_with_Wellcome_V0034268.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Second Plague: Frogs came up and covered the Sand of Egypt"><img alt="The Second Plague: Frogs came up and covered the Sand of Egypt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Aaron_points_his_rod_at_the_river_and_it_begins_to_flow_with_Wellcome_V0034268.jpg/187px-Aaron_points_his_rod_at_the_river_and_it_begins_to_flow_with_Wellcome_V0034268.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Aaron_points_his_rod_at_the_river_and_it_begins_to_flow_with_Wellcome_V0034268.jpg/280px-Aaron_points_his_rod_at_the_river_and_it_begins_to_flow_with_Wellcome_V0034268.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Aaron_points_his_rod_at_the_river_and_it_begins_to_flow_with_Wellcome_V0034268.jpg/374px-Aaron_points_his_rod_at_the_river_and_it_begins_to_flow_with_Wellcome_V0034268.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2514" data-file-height="3229" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Second Plague: Frogs came up and covered the Sand of Egypt</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 119.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:William_de_Brailes_-_The_Third_Plague_of_Egypt_-_Gnats_(Exodus_8_-17)_-_Walters_W1065R_-_Full_Page.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Third Plague:"><img alt="The Third Plague:" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/William_de_Brailes_-_The_Third_Plague_of_Egypt_-_Gnats_%28Exodus_8_-17%29_-_Walters_W1065R_-_Full_Page.jpg/179px-William_de_Brailes_-_The_Third_Plague_of_Egypt_-_Gnats_%28Exodus_8_-17%29_-_Walters_W1065R_-_Full_Page.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/William_de_Brailes_-_The_Third_Plague_of_Egypt_-_Gnats_%28Exodus_8_-17%29_-_Walters_W1065R_-_Full_Page.jpg/268px-William_de_Brailes_-_The_Third_Plague_of_Egypt_-_Gnats_%28Exodus_8_-17%29_-_Walters_W1065R_-_Full_Page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/William_de_Brailes_-_The_Third_Plague_of_Egypt_-_Gnats_%28Exodus_8_-17%29_-_Walters_W1065R_-_Full_Page.jpg/357px-William_de_Brailes_-_The_Third_Plague_of_Egypt_-_Gnats_%28Exodus_8_-17%29_-_Walters_W1065R_-_Full_Page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="1506" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Third Plague:</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tissot_The_Plague_of_Flies.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Fourth Plague: The Plague of Flies, James Jacques Joseph Tissot, Jewish Museum, New York"><img alt="The Fourth Plague: The Plague of Flies, James Jacques Joseph Tissot, Jewish Museum, New York" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Tissot_The_Plague_of_Flies.jpg/255px-Tissot_The_Plague_of_Flies.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Tissot_The_Plague_of_Flies.jpg/382px-Tissot_The_Plague_of_Flies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Tissot_The_Plague_of_Flies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="419" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Fourth Plague: <i>The Plague of Flies</i>, <a href="/wiki/James_Jacques_Joseph_Tissot" class="mw-redirect" title="James Jacques Joseph Tissot">James Jacques Joseph Tissot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Museum_(of_New_York)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Museum (of New York)">Jewish Museum, New York</a></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 203.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:033.The_Fifth_Plague._Livestock_Disease.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Fifth Plague: Pestilence of livestock, by Gustave Doré"><img alt="The Fifth Plague: Pestilence of livestock, by Gustave Doré" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/033.The_Fifth_Plague._Livestock_Disease.jpg/305px-033.The_Fifth_Plague._Livestock_Disease.jpg" decoding="async" width="204" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/033.The_Fifth_Plague._Livestock_Disease.jpg/458px-033.The_Fifth_Plague._Livestock_Disease.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/033.The_Fifth_Plague._Livestock_Disease.jpg/611px-033.The_Fifth_Plague._Livestock_Disease.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2645" data-file-height="2079" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Fifth Plague: Pestilence of livestock, by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9" title="Gustave Doré">Gustave Doré</a></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 238.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin,_John_-_The_Seventh_Plague_-_1823.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Seventh Plague: John Martin (1823)"><img alt="The Seventh Plague: John Martin (1823)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Martin%2C_John_-_The_Seventh_Plague_-_1823.jpg/358px-Martin%2C_John_-_The_Seventh_Plague_-_1823.jpg" decoding="async" width="239" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Martin%2C_John_-_The_Seventh_Plague_-_1823.jpg/537px-Martin%2C_John_-_The_Seventh_Plague_-_1823.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Martin%2C_John_-_The_Seventh_Plague_-_1823.jpg/715px-Martin%2C_John_-_The_Seventh_Plague_-_1823.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1074" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Seventh Plague: <a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">John Martin</a> (1823)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 236px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Holman_The_Plague_of_Locusts.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Eighth Plague: "The Plague of Locusts", illustration from the 1890 Holman Bible"><img alt="The Eighth Plague: "The Plague of Locusts", illustration from the 1890 Holman Bible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Holman_The_Plague_of_Locusts.jpg/354px-Holman_The_Plague_of_Locusts.jpg" decoding="async" width="236" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Holman_The_Plague_of_Locusts.jpg/532px-Holman_The_Plague_of_Locusts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Holman_The_Plague_of_Locusts.jpg/709px-Holman_The_Plague_of_Locusts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="916" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Eighth Plague: "The Plague of Locusts", illustration from the 1890 <a href="/wiki/Holman_bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Holman bible">Holman Bible</a></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 200px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 198px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:034.The_Ninth_Plague._Darkness.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Ninth Plague: Darkness by Gustave Doré"><img alt="The Ninth Plague: Darkness by Gustave Doré" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/034.The_Ninth_Plague._Darkness.jpg/297px-034.The_Ninth_Plague._Darkness.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/034.The_Ninth_Plague._Darkness.jpg/446px-034.The_Ninth_Plague._Darkness.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/034.The_Ninth_Plague._Darkness.jpg/594px-034.The_Ninth_Plague._Darkness.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2627" data-file-height="2122" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Ninth Plague: <i>Darkness</i> by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9" title="Gustave Doré">Gustave Doré</a></div>
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</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aaron%27s_rod" title="Aaron's rod">Aaron's rod</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jochebed" title="Jochebed">Jochebed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miriam" title="Miriam">Miriam</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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href="/w/index.php?title=Plagues_of_Egypt&action=edit&section=21"title="Edit section: References"
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Greifenhagen-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Greifenhagen_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greifenhagen_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGreifenhagen2000" class="citation book cs1">Greifenhagen, F.V. (2000). "Plagues of Egypt". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC"><i>Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible</i></a>. Amsterdam University Press. p. 1062. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789053565032" title="Special:BookSources/9789053565032"><bdi>9789053565032</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plagues+of+Egypt&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible&rft.pages=1062&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9789053565032&rft.aulast=Greifenhagen&rft.aufirst=F.V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqRtUqxkB7wkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Tigay-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tigay_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tigay_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tigay_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tigay_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tigay_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tigay_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tigay_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTigay2004" class="citation book cs1">Tigay, Jeffrey H. (2004). "Exodus". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515"><i>The Jewish Study Bible</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exodus&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Study+Bible&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Tigay&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195297515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ph.yhb.org.il/en/04-15-08/">"08. The Meaning of the Ten Plagues – Peninei Halakha"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 1,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=08.+The+Meaning+of+the+Ten+Plagues+%E2%80%93+Peninei+Halakha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fph.yhb.org.il%2Fen%2F04-15-08%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Grabbe, Lester (2017). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?. Bloomsbury. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-67043-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-67043-4">978-0-567-67043-4</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Moore-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moore_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moore_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMooreKelle2011" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA81"><i>Biblical History and Israel's Past</i></a>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802862600" title="Special:BookSources/9780802862600"><bdi>9780802862600</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biblical+History+and+Israel%27s+Past&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780802862600&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Megan+Bishop&rft.au=Kelle%2C+Brad+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjkz_8EMoaUC%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMeyers2005" class="citation book cs1">Meyers, Carol (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA5"><i>Exodus</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521002912" title="Special:BookSources/9780521002912"><bdi>9780521002912</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exodus&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780521002912&rft.aulast=Meyers&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0QHHITXsyskC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chabad.org/holidays/passover/pesach_cdo/aid/1653/jewish/The-Ten-Plagues.htm">"The Ten Plagues"</a>. <i>Chabad.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200402064833/https://www.chabad.org/holidays/passover/pesach_cdo/aid/1653/jewish/The-Ten-Plagues.htm">Archived</a> from the original on April 2, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 8,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chabad.org&rft.atitle=The+Ten+Plagues&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2Fholidays%2Fpassover%2Fpesach_cdo%2Faid%2F1653%2Fjewish%2FThe-Ten-Plagues.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblestudytools.com/lxx/exodus/8.html">"Exodus 8 – LXX Bible"</a>. <i>Bible Study Tools</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190422151522/https://www.biblestudytools.com/lxx/exodus/8.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 22, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 22,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bible+Study+Tools&rft.atitle=Exodus+8+%E2%80%93+LXX+Bible&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblestudytools.com%2Flxx%2Fexodus%2F8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book24.html">"Philo: On the Life of Moses, I"</a>. <i>Early Jewish Writings</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190418232308/http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book24.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 18, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 22,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Early+Jewish+Writings&rft.atitle=Philo%3A+On+the+Life+of+Moses%2C+I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlyjewishwritings.com%2Ftext%2Fphilo%2Fbook24.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/19/2/2">"Beasts or Bugs?"</a>. <i>The BAS Library</i>. August 24, 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190422142811/https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/19/2/2">Archived</a> from the original on April 22, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 22,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+BAS+Library&rft.atitle=Beasts+or+Bugs%3F&rft.date=2015-08-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baslibrary.org%2Fbible-review%2F19%2F2%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus+12:27&version=nkjv">Exodus 12:27</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRömer2007" class="citation book cs1">Römer, Thomas (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/80331961"><i>The so-called Deuteronomistic history : a sociological, historical, and literary introduction</i></a>. London: T & T Clark. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-03212-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-03212-6"><bdi>978-0-567-03212-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/80331961">80331961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+so-called+Deuteronomistic+history+%3A+a+sociological%2C+historical%2C+and+literary+introduction&rft.place=London&rft.pub=T+%26+T+Clark&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F80331961&rft.isbn=978-0-567-03212-6&rft.aulast=R%C3%B6mer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F80331961&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRogerson2003b" class="citation book cs1">Rogerson, John W. (2003b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153">"Deuteronomy"</a>. In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). <i>Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible</i>. Eerdmans. p. 154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802837110" title="Special:BookSources/9780802837110"><bdi>9780802837110</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Deuteronomy&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Commentary+on+the+Bible&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780802837110&rft.aulast=Rogerson&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Vo-11umIZQC%26pg%3DPA153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Seters2015" class="citation book cs1">Van Seters, John (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=42-_CQAAQBAJ"><i>The Pentateuch: A Social Science Commentary</i></a>. Bloomsbury. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780567658807" title="Special:BookSources/9780567658807"><bdi>9780567658807</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pentateuch%3A+A+Social+Science+Commentary&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780567658807&rft.aulast=Van+Seters&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D42-_CQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstone2003" class="citation book cs1">Johnstone, William D. (2003). "Exodus". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC"><i>Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible</i></a>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802837110" title="Special:BookSources/9780802837110"><bdi>9780802837110</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Exodus&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Commentary+on+the+Bible&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780802837110&rft.aulast=Johnstone&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Vo-11umIZQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015p.476:_"While_there_is_a_consensus_among_scholars_that_the_Exodus_did_not_take_place_in_the_manner_described_in_the_Bible,_surprisingly_most_scholars_agree_that_the_narrative_has_a_historical_core,_and_that_some_of_the_highland_settlers_came,_one_way_or_another,_from_Egypt.."-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015p.476:_"While_there_is_a_consensus_among_scholars_that_the_Exodus_did_not_take_place_in_the_manner_described_in_the_Bible,_surprisingly_most_scholars_agree_that_the_narrative_has_a_historical_core,_and_that_some_of_the_highland_settlers_came,_one_way_or_another,_from_Egypt.."_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaust2015">Faust 2015</a>, p.476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..".</span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMeyers2005" class="citation book cs1">Meyers, Carol (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA5"><i>Exodus</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521002912" title="Special:BookSources/9780521002912"><bdi>9780521002912</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exodus&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780521002912&rft.aulast=Meyers&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0QHHITXsyskC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillems201083-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillems201083_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillems2010">Willems 2010</a>, p. 83.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFWillems2010 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEnmarch2011" class="citation book cs1">Enmarch, Roland (2011). "The Reception of a Middle Egyptian Poem: The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All". In Collier, M.; Snape, S. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181622/http://www.rutherfordpress.co.uk/Enmarch%20-%20The%20Reception%20of%20Ipuwer.pdf"><i>Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Rutherford. pp. 173–175. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rutherfordpress.co.uk/Enmarch%20-%20The%20Reception%20of%20Ipuwer.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 3, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Reception+of+a+Middle+Egyptian+Poem%3A+The+Dialogue+of+Ipuwer+and+the+Lord+of+All&rft.btitle=Ramesside+Studies+in+Honour+of+K.+A.+Kitchen&rft.pages=173-175&rft.pub=Rutherford&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Enmarch&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rutherfordpress.co.uk%2FEnmarch%2520-%2520The%2520Reception%2520of%2520Ipuwer.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLeon2011" class="citation book cs1">Leon, Donna (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xiiWE-fwVp8C&pg=PT85"><i>Handel's Bestiary: In Search of Animals in Handel's Operas</i></a>. Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802195616" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802195616"><bdi>978-0802195616</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handel%27s+Bestiary%3A+In+Search+of+Animals+in+Handel%27s+Operas&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0802195616&rft.aulast=Leon&rft.aufirst=Donna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxiiWE-fwVp8C%26pg%3DPT85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2005" class="citation book cs1">Collins, John J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yqClWOhqso0C&q=%22collective+memory%22&pg=PA45"><i>The Bible After Babel: Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age</i></a>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802828927" title="Special:BookSources/9780802828927"><bdi>9780802828927</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+After+Babel%3A+Historical+Criticism+in+a+Postmodern+Age&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780802828927&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyqClWOhqso0C%26q%3D%2522collective%2Bmemory%2522%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFaust2015" class="citation book cs1">Faust, Avraham (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/11906343">"The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus"</a>. In Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H. C. Propp (eds.). <i>Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3"><bdi>978-3-319-04768-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+Iron+Age+Israel%3A+On+Origins+and+Habitus&rft.btitle=Israel%27s+Exodus+in+Transdisciplinary+Perspective%3A+Text%2C+Archaeology%2C+Culture%2C+and+Geoscience&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-319-04768-3&rft.aulast=Faust&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F11906343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRedmount2001" class="citation book cs1">Redmount, Carol A. (2001) [1998]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA59">"Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt"</a>. In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). <i>The Oxford History of the Biblical World</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199881482" title="Special:BookSources/9780199881482"><bdi>9780199881482</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bitter+Lives%3A+Israel+In+And+Out+of+Egypt&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780199881482&rft.aulast=Redmount&rft.aufirst=Carol+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4DVHJRFW3mYC%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRendsburg2015" class="citation book cs1">Rendsburg, Gary A. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/docman/faculty-seminars/678-moses-the-magician/file">"Moses the Magician"</a>. In Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H. C. Propp (eds.). <i>Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3"><bdi>978-3-319-04768-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Moses+the+Magician&rft.btitle=Israel%27s+Exodus+in+Transdisciplinary+Perspective%3A+Text%2C+Archaeology%2C+Culture%2C+and+Geoscience&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-319-04768-3&rft.aulast=Rendsburg&rft.aufirst=Gary+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjewishstudies.rutgers.edu%2Fdocman%2Ffaculty-seminars%2F678-moses-the-magician%2Ffile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlagues+of+Egypt" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Isaac Luria. <i>Las Diez Plagas de Egipto: Cábala y Códigos en la Biblia</i> Independently published 2021 ISBN 979-8486990120</li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plagues_of_Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Plagues of Egypt">Plagues of Egypt</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kabbalaonline.org/kabbalah/article_cdo/aid/379573/jewish/Kabbala-and-the-10-Plagues.htm"><i>Kabbalah and the 10 Plagues</i> (www.kabbalaonline.org)</a></li></ul>
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transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Passover_footer" title="Template talk:Passover footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Passover_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Passover footer"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Passover" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder" title="Passover Seder">Seder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afikoman" title="Afikoman">Afikoman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">The Exodus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ha_Lachma_Anya" title="Ha Lachma Anya">Ha Lachma Anya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Nishtana" title="Ma Nishtana">Ma Nishtana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/With_a_strong_hand_and_an_outstretched_arm" title="With a strong hand and an outstretched arm">"Outstretched Arm"</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ten Plagues</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Passover_Seder" title="White House Passover Seder">White House Passover Seder</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Plate" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate" title="Passover Seder plate">Plate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Beitzah" title="Passover Seder plate">Beitzah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Charoset" title="Passover Seder plate">Charoset</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Karpas" title="Passover Seder plate">Karpas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Maror_and_Chazeret" title="Passover Seder plate">Maror and Chazeret</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder_plate#Zeroah" title="Passover Seder plate">Zeroah</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haggadah" title="Haggadah">Haggadah</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Passover_songs" title="Passover songs">Songs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adir_Hu" title="Adir Hu">Adir Hu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chad_Gadya" title="Chad Gadya">Chad Gadya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dayenu" title="Dayenu">Dayenu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Echad_Mi_Yodea" title="Echad Mi Yodea">Echad Mi Yodea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/L%27Shana_Haba%27ah" title="L'Shana Haba'ah">L'Shana Haba'ah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vehi_Sheamda" title="Vehi Sheamda">Vehi Sheamda</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Illustrations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Haggadah" title="Amsterdam Haggadah">Amsterdam Haggadah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Birds%27_Head_Haggadah" title="Birds' Head Haggadah">Birds' Head Haggadah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_House_Haggadah" title="Maxwell House Haggadah">Maxwell House Haggadah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sarajevo_Haggadah" title="Sarajevo Haggadah">Sarajevo Haggadah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Szyk_Haggadah" title="Szyk Haggadah">Szyk Haggadah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Haggadah" title="Washington Haggadah">Washington Haggadah</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Foods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Matzah" title="Matzah">Matzah</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Dishes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chremslach" title="Chremslach">Chremslach</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matzah_ball" title="Matzah ball">Matzah ball</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matzah_brei" title="Matzah brei">Matzah brei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matzo_lasagna" title="Matzo lasagna">Matzo lasagna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matzah_meal" class="mw-redirect" title="Matzah meal">Matzah meal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matzah_pizza" title="Matzah pizza">Matzah pizza</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Matzoquiles" title="Matzoquiles">Matzoquiles</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Streit%27s" title="Streit's">Streit's</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manischewitz" title="Manischewitz">Manischewitz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Etablissements_Ren%C3%A9_Neymann" title="Etablissements René Neymann">René Neymann</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Matzos" title="Yehuda Matzos">Yehuda Matzos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rakusen%27s" title="Rakusen's">Rakusen's</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Osem_(company)" title="Osem (company)">Osem</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Main courses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brisket_(Jewish_dish)" title="Brisket (Jewish dish)">Brisket</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton" title="Lamb and mutton">Lamb</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Potato_kugel" title="Potato kugel">Potato kugel</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Desserts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kichel" title="Kichel">Egg kichel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flourless_chocolate_cake" title="Flourless chocolate cake">Flourless chocolate cake</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hadji_bada" title="Hadji bada">Hadji bada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macaroon" title="Macaroon">Macaroon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marunchinos" title="Marunchinos">Marunchinos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meringue" title="Meringue">Meringue</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Observances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedikat_Chametz" title="Bedikat Chametz">Bedikat Chametz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fast_of_the_Firstborn" title="Fast of the Firstborn">Fast of the Firstborn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eve_of_Passover_on_Shabbat" title="Eve of Passover on Shabbat">Eve of Passover on Shabbat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Passover_sacrifice" title="Passover sacrifice">Passover sacrifice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chol_HaMoed" title="Chol HaMoed">Chol HaMoed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mimouna" title="Mimouna">Mimouna</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isru_Chag" class="mw-redirect" title="Isru Chag">Isru Chag</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pesach_Sheni" title="Pesach Sheni">Pesach Sheni</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Laws/customs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chametz" title="Chametz">Chametz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dough_offering#The_Mitzvah_in_modern_practice" title="Dough offering">Challah from Shmurah Matzah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kitniyot" title="Kitniyot">Kitniyot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gebrochts" title="Gebrochts">Gebrochts</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Prayers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Song_of_Songs" title="Song of Songs">Song of Songs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Tov_Torah_readings#Passover" title="Yom Tov Torah readings">Torah readings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_for_dew" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer for dew">Prayer for dew</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007550797605171">Israel</a></span></li>
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